Brain Advance Access published online on June 8, 2009
Brain, doi:10.1093/brain/awp142
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The neurophysiological correlates of motor tics following focal striatal disinhibition
1 The Leslie & Suzan Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Israel 2 The Mina & Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Israel 3 The Open University, Milton Keynes, Dept of Biological Sciences, MK7 66A, UK
Correspondence to:
Kevin W. McCairn, The Leslie & Suzan Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Israel E-mail: kevin.mccairn{at}yahoo.com
The cortico-basal ganglia pathway is involved in normal motor control and implicated in multiple movement disorders. Brief repetitive muscle contractions known as motor tics are a common symptom in several basal ganglia related motor disorders. We used focal micro-injections of the GABA-A antagonist bicuculline to the sensorimotor putamen of behaving primates to induce stereotyped tics similar to those observed in human disorders. This focal disruption of GABA transmission in the putamen led to motor tics confined to a single or a few muscles. The temporal and structural properties of the tics were identified using electromyogram and frame-by-frame analysis of multi-camera video recordings. During experimental sessions the tics would wax and wane, but their size and shape remained highly stereotyped within the session. Neuronal spiking activity and local field potentials were recorded simultaneously from multiple locations along the cortico-basal ganglia pathway: motor cortex, putamen and globus pallidus external and internal segments. The local field potentials displayed stereotyped tic-related voltage transients lasting several hundred milliseconds. These ‘local field potential spikes’, which appeared throughout the cortico-basal ganglia pathway, were consistently observed in close temporal association to the motor tics. During tic expression, neuronal activity was altered in most of the recorded neurons in a temporally focal manner, displaying phasic firing rate modulations time locked to the tics. Consistent with theoretical models of tic generation, transient inhibition of the basal ganglia output nucleus prior to and during tic expression was observed. The phasic reduction of basal ganglia output was correlated with a disinhibition of cortical activity, manifesting as short bursts of activity in motor cortex. The results demonstrate that the basal ganglia provide a finely timed disinhibition in the output nuclei of the basal ganglia. However, a large fraction of the neurons were simultaneously inhibited during tics, although tics were only manifested in a small confined muscle group. This suggests that rather than representing a specific action within the basal ganglia itself, these nuclei provide a temporally exact but spatially distributed release signal. The tics induced by striatal disinhibition bear a striking resemblance to motor tics recognized in human pathologies associated with basal ganglia dysfunction. The neuronal changes observed during tic formation may provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanism of tic disorders, as well as into basic information processing in the cortico-basal ganglia loop.
Key Words: motor tics; basal ganglia; bicuculline; microinjection; striatum
Abbreviations: AC, anterior commisure; EMG, electromyogram; GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid; GPe, globus pallidus external segment; GPi, globus pallidus internal segment; LFP, local field potential; M1, primary motor cortex; STN, subthalamic nucleus; TS, Tourette syndrome
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Received December 24, 2008. Revised March 26, 2009. Accepted April 22, 2009.
*These authors contributed equally to this work.