Brain, Vol. 124, No. 9, 1743-1753,
September 2001
© 2001 Oxford University Press
The expression profile of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors (TIMPs) in lesions and normal appearing white matter of multiple sclerosis
1 Departments of Research and 2 Neurology, University Hospitals Basel, Switzerland and the 3 Department of Pathology, Division of Neuropathology, University Hospital Vrije Universiteit, MS Centre for Research and Care, The Netherlands
Correspondence to:
Dr R. L. P. Lindberg, Departments of Research and Neurology, University Hospitals, Pharmazentrum, Klingelbergstrasse 50, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland E-mail: Raija.Lindberg@unibas.ch
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Abstract |
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In multiple sclerosis, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are effectors of crucial pathogenetic steps, such as blood–brain barrier breakdown, invasion of brain parenchyma by immune cells and demyelination. However, only limited data are available on the types of MMPs induced in the course of multiple sclerosis, and on the role of their endogenous antagonists, the tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). We quantified the transcriptional expression of six MMPs and the four TIMPs in lesions and in normal appearing white matter (NAWM) from post-mortem multiple sclerosis brain tissue by real-time polymerase chain reaction, and compared levels with those in brain tissue from six control patients without neurological disease. The mRNA expression of MMP-7 and -9, but not of other metalloproteinases [MMP-2 and -3, and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-
-converting-enzyme] was equally upregulated throughout all stages of lesion formation with active inflammation, and in most of matched NAWM tissue. The transcription of cytokines TNF-/ß and IL (interleukin)-2, known modulators of MMPs, was upregulated only in distinct stages of lesion formation, while their receptors were not induced at all, which suggests that additional signalling molecules participate in the sustained upregulation of MMP-7 and -9 in multiple sclerosis. None of the TIMPs showed a significant induction over baseline expression of controls. We hypothesize that an imbalance between MMP and TIMP expression may cause a persistent proteolytic overactivity in multiple sclerosis, that may be a factor for continuous tissue destruction, and hence for secondary disease progression. brain tissue; matrix metalloproteinases; multiple sclerosis; real-time polymerase chain reaction; tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases
GAPDH = glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase; IL = interleukin; MMP = matrix metalloproteinase; NAWM = normal appearing white matter; PP = primary progressive; RR = relapsing–remitting; RT–PCR = reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction; SP = secondary progressive; TACE = TNF--converting enzyme; TIMP = tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase; TNF = tumour necrosis factor
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Introduction |
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Multiple sclerosis is thought to be caused by an autoimmune response directed against one or several myelin components of the CNS. The histopathological hallmark of multiple sclerosis is the plaque, a well-demarcated white matter lesion characterized by demyelination and axonal loss. Focal blood–brain barrier leakage, followed by extravasation of immune cells into the brain parenchyma were believed to be the earliest steps in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (Kermode et al., 1990
; Kwon and Prineas, 1994; Hartung, 1997). However, lesion formation may not evolve stereotypically, but via distinct types of inflammatory and degenerative events (Lucchinetti et al., 2000). Moreover, longitudinal studies on early plaque formation using newer MRI techniques have demonstrated morphological changes in the so-called normal appearing white matter (NAWM) that occur independently of later plaque formation (Catalaa et al., 2000; Werring et al., 2000).
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of at least 23 endopeptidases that act as effectors of extracellular matrix remodelling in physiological and pathological conditions (Woessner, 1998). MMPs can be subdivided into gelatinases (MMP-2 and -9), collagenases (MMP-1, -8, -13 and -18), stromelysins (MMP-3, -10 and -11) and other MMPs, according to their substrate affinity profile. Their activity is closely regulated by tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), a group of four endogenous antagonists that bind to the catalytic site of MMPs (Yong et al., 1998). There is accumulating evidence that MMPs play a key role in the pathogenesis of many neuroinflammatory diseases (Kieseier et al., 1999). In multiple sclerosis, elevated protein levels of MMP-9 are detectable in CSF (Gijbels et al., 1992; Leppert et al., 1998) and serum (Lee et al., 1999; Waubant et al., 1999). Furthermore, the appearance of new gadolinium-enhancing lesions is more likely to occur after an increase of serum MMP-9 (Waubant et al., 1999). In vitro experiments and results from animal models of multiple sclerosis indicate that metalloproteinases are effectors of blood–brain barrier disruption (Rosenberg et al., 1995), extravasation of immune cells into the brain parenchyma (Gijbels et al., 1994; Leppert et al., 1996; Xia et al., 1996), enhancement of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)- release (Gearing et al., 1994; Moss et al., 1997) and degradation of myelin proteins (Proost et al., 1993; Chandler et al., 1995). Furthermore, enzyme inhibitors of MMPs have been shown to ameliorate the clinical course and reduce inflammatory cell infiltration in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (Gijbels et al., 1994; Hewson et al., 1995; Clements et al., 1997). Histological studies have demonstrated elevated protein expression of several MMPs in macrophages, microglial cells and astrocytes within multiple sclerosis lesions (Cuzner et al., 1996; Maeda and Sobel, 1996; Cossins et al., 1997). However, the array of MMPs and TIMPs expressed in the process of plaque formation has not been elucidated and their expression levels in NAWM are not known.
In this report, we quantified the transcriptional expression of six MMPs (MMP-2, -3, -7, -8, -9 and -12), four TIMPs (TIMP-1, -2, -3 and -4) and the metalloproteinase TNF--converting-enzyme (TACE) in different stages of multiple sclerosis lesion formation, matched NAWM, and CSF cells from multiple sclerosis patients by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We compared their expression levels with that of cytokines TNF-, TNF-ß and interleukin (IL)-2, known inducers of MMP expression (Leppert et al., 1995, 1996; Kubota et al., 1996; Johnatty et al., 1997), and their respective receptors.
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Methods |
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Human brain tissue samples
Human brain tissue was obtained at autopsy (with short post-mortem intervals; see detailed autopsy data in Table 1
) from seven patients with secondary progressive (SP) multiple sclerosis (diagnosed according to the Poser criteria; Poser et al., 1983), and six controls (i.e. patients who died without neurological disease). The clinical diagnosis of multiple sclerosis was confirmed neuropathologically. The post-mortem samples used in this study were obtained through the rapid autopsy system of the Netherlands Brain Bank (coordinator Dr R. Ravid), which has been approved by the Ethics Committee of the University Hospital Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. All patients and their next-of-kin had given written consent for autopsy, and use of their brain for scientific research. Brain tissue samples from non-neurological control cases were taken from the subcortical white matter or corpus callosum. Tissue samples were snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at –196°C. From each multiple sclerosis patient, one brain sample was obtained (which contained a lesion that was representative for all the lesions found in a particular patient), except from multiple sclerosis cases 98-009 and 99-025 where two independent samples were used for analysis. In addition, macroscopically, NAWM was collected from each multiple sclerosis patient.
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Neuropathological evaluation
Tissue samples derived from multiple sclerosis lesions were stained with anti-myelin basic protein (IgG; Boehringer Mannheim, Germany) and with the neutral lipid marker Oil Red O to delineate areas of myelin breakdown and demyelination, with mouse anti-human KP1 (CD68, IgG1; Dako, Copenhagen, Denmark) and mouse anti-human leucocyte common antigen (CD45, IgG1; Dako) to detect leucocyte infiltration and microglial activation, with MHC class II antigens (HLA-DR; Biotest AG, Dreieich, Germany) to detect activated lymphocytes and glial cells and with anti-cow glial fibrillary acidic protein (Dako) to determine the extent of astrogliosis. Detection of MMP-9 was performed with the antibody 4H3 (IgG1; R&D Systems, Abingdon, UK). For immunohistochemistry, serial 5 µm thick brain tissue sections were stained by the ABC method (avidin–biotin–horseradish peroxidase complex; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif., USA) using 3,3'-diaminobenzidine tetrachloride as a chromogen (Boven et al., 2000
). Staging of multiple sclerosis lesions was performed according to the classification described (Table 2) (Van Waesberghe et al., 1999; van der Valk and De Groot, 2000). In normal control white matter (corpus callosum or subcortical white matter), no activity of inflammatory cells was detected.
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CSF samples
Twenty-two patients (12 women, 10 men) with clinically definite or laboratory-supported definite multiple sclerosis (Poser et al., 1983
) were included. In 17 patients, lumbar puncture was performed in clinically stable phases: four patients had primary progressive (PP) multiple sclerosis, six patients had relapsing–remitting (RR) multiple sclerosis and seven had SP multiple sclerosis. Five patients were lumbar punctured during their first attack and were later diagnosed as having RR disease. None of the patients had received corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive agents within 6 weeks prior to the lumbar puncture. Five CSF samples from patients with hydrocephalus (two), lumbago (one) and psychiatric diseases (two) served as controls.
Gene expression analysis
Frozen brain tissue sections of multiple sclerosis lesions and control cases (10 µm thick) were collected in 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes, suspended in 600 µl of lysis buffer (QIAGEN AG, Basel, Switzerland) and stored at –70°C until RNA isolation. After routine analyses, CSF samples were centrifuged and cells were suspended in lysis buffer and stored at –70°C until RNA isolation. RNA was isolated according to the manufacturer's instructions (RNeasy; QIAGEN).
Total RNA (5–10 ng/µl final concentration) was first incubated with 0.5 µg of oligo(dT) at 70°C for 2 min and then reverse-transcribed at 37°C for 1 h in reaction mixture containing a final concentration of 1x first strand buffer (Promega Corporation, Madison, Wis., USA), 500 µM of each deoxynucleotide triphosphate, 1 U/µl of Moloney murine leukaemia virus reverse transcriptase (Promega) and 1 U/µl of ribonuclease inhibitor (RNAsin, Promega). cDNA was used as a template for the real-time PCR analysis based on the 5'-nuclease assay (Gibson et al., 1996) with the ABI PRISM® 7700 Sequence Detection System (Applied Biosystems, PE Europe B.V., Rotkreuz, Switzerland). PCR primers and TaqMan probes were designed by using Primer-Express® software (Applied Biosystems). Expression of MMP-2, -3, -7, -8, -9, -12, TIMP-1, -2, -3, -4, TNF-, TNF-ß, TNF receptor 1, TNF receptor 2, TACE, IL-2, IL-2 receptor , IL-2 receptor ß and IL-2 receptor 
was analysed. Glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was amplified from all samples on each plate as a housekeeping gene to normalize expression between different samples and to monitor assay reproducibility. Relative quantification of all targets was calculated by the comparative cycle threshold method outlined in user bulletin No. 2 provided by Applied Biosystems. A non-template control was included for each target analysed. The investigators (R.L.P.L. and D.L.) involved in measurements of gene expression and subsequent data analysis were blinded to the origin (multiple sclerosis versus control) of CSF cells and brain tissue, and the types of multiple sclerosis.
Statistical analysis
Data were analysed using non-parametric statistical tests. The Spearman rank correlation of levels of gene expression in plaques and NAWM was calculated. Expression levels of genes in different types of tissue, or different stages of disease were compared using the Mann–Whitney U-test. P-values <0.05 were considered significant.
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Brain tissue
Transcriptional expression of MMPs, TIMPs and TACE
In control brain samples, MMP-9 was constitutively expressed over a wide range, while MMP-7 was not detectable. In multiple sclerosis plaques, MMP-9 and MMP-7 were upregulated compared with controls (PMMP-9 = 0.0032, PMMP-7 = 0.0029) (Fig. 1A and B
), and the individual levels of the two MMPs were closely correlated (
= 0.857, P = 0.023); one sample of a chronic inactive lesion was not included (see below). However, the two chronic inactive lesions, derived from the same patient (case no. 99-025), showed significantly lower expression levels for MMP-9 than lesions with active inflammation (reactive, active, chronic active lesions) (P = 0.039), and were similar to those in controls (P = 0.180). Unexpectedly, the analysis for MMP-7 in chronic inactive lesions yielded divergent results, as transcripts for this gene were absent in one and present in high amounts in the other (Fig. 1B). An immunohistochemical re-evaluation revealed a rim of intense MHC class II (HLA-DR)-immunoreactive microglial cells (without uptake of myelin) surrounding the edge of the chronic inactive lesion in the sample with high MMP-7 expression (Fig. 2A). Therefore, this sample could not be defined entirely as chronic inactive and was not included in statistical evaluations.
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The expression of MMP-9 in NAWM from multiple sclerosis was closely correlated with that within matched lesions (
= 0.867, P = 0.015) and was also increased in the majority of samples compared with controls (P = 0.022). Immunohistochemical staining of NAWM from multiple sclerosis-affected brain tissue revealed a strong immunoreactivity for MMP-9 in blood vessel walls (Fig. 2B
). We have investigated the immunohistochemical expression of MMP-9 in one control brain sample (no. 94-113), two brain samples containing NAWM (case nos 98-009 and 96-026) and in two samples containing an active demyelinating lesion (nos 96-121 and 97-160). In both the NAWM and the active lesions, the blood vessels were immunoreactive for MMP-9. No significant MMP-9 immunoreactivity was found in normal white matter of control cases (not shown). In contrast, MMP-7 was detectable only in 57% (four out of seven) of NAWM samples, but there was also a strong correlation between levels in lesions and matched NAWM ( = 0.804, P = 0.035).
As a whole, expression levels of MMP-2 and -3 (Fig. 1C and D) in plaques, and in NAWM from multiple sclerosis were similar to those in controls (statistical data not shown). However, reactive plaques scored significantly higher than controls (PMMP-2 = 0.044, PMMP-3 = 0.046) and other lesion types (PMMP-2 = 0.040, PMMP-3 = 0.041) for these two MMPs.
The results of the quantification of gene expression of the other targets are depicted in Table 3. Thirty-eight per cent (six out of 16) of multiple sclerosis specimens (lesions and NAWM), but no controls, contained low amounts of MMP-8 mRNA, which were at the detection limit of the RT–PCR for most samples. Conversely, MMP-12 was constitutively expressed in controls, and its expression was decreased in multiple sclerosis (Plesions = 0.025, PNAWM = 0.038). All four types of TIMPs were constitutively expressed in controls. Although their range of expression was wider in plaques and NAWM from multiple sclerosis, none of the TIMPs were significantly overexpressed compared with controls (Table 3). Moreover, the comparison of TIMP levels with those of MMP-7 and -9 in individual tissue specimens failed to demonstrate any significant correlation. Lastly, TIMP levels were not different between lesions and NAWM from multiple sclerosis, and did not relate to a specific type of plaque (statistical data not shown). Similarly, the expression of TACE in multiple sclerosis was not different from controls and did not show a correlation with other gene targets or types of multiple sclerosis tissue (statistical data not shown).
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Transcriptional expression of TNF-
/ß, IL-2 and their receptorsThe expression levels of TNF-
(P = 0.044) and TNF-ß (P = 0.046) (Fig. 3A and B), and of their corresponding receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2 (PTNFR1, TNFR2 = 0.046) (Fig. 3C and D) were increased only in reactive multiple sclerosis lesions, but were similar in other lesion types, and in all NAWM specimens from multiple sclerosis compared with controls (statistical data not shown).
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In active lesions, where T-cell invasion is most prominent, and adjacent NAWM from the same patient, the cytokine IL-2 was transcriptionally upregulated. This was also the case in some other NAWM samples adjacent to other lesion types with active inflammation (Fig. 4A
). The presence of lymphocytes in all these tissue samples was confirmed by positive staining for CD45 (not shown). Similarly to the pattern seen for TNF receptors (Fig. 3C and D), all three subunits of the IL-2 receptor were upregulated in a reactive and a chronic active plaque from the same patient (Fig. 4B–D), whereas the majority of tissue from multiple sclerosis patients revealed expression levels within or below the range of controls.
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MMP and cytokine gene expression in CSF cells
In order to delineate the contribution of blood-derived immune cells to the upregulation of MMP-7 and -9, and to confirm the lack of induction of other metalloproteinases in multiple sclerosis brain tissue, we measured the transcriptional expression of MMP-2, -3, -7 and -9 and TACE in CSF cells from lumbar punctures performed during relapses and clinically stable phases of RR/SP multiple sclerosis, and from PP multiple sclerosis. Figure 5A
shows that MMP-9 transcripts were not detectable in control CSF (nil out of 5), whereas all samples from RR/SP multiple sclerosis (17 out of 17) were positive with similar levels during relapses versus clinically stable phases of the disease (medianstable = 0.003, medianrelapse = 0.002; P = 0.999). Conversely, only one out of four CSF samples from PP multiple sclerosis expressed small amounts of MMP-9 mRNA. Transcripts for MMP-7 were not detectable in either multiple sclerosis or control samples (not shown). Genes for MMP-2 (Fig. 5B), MMP-3 and TACE (not shown) were constitutively expressed in controls and were not upregulated in multiple sclerosis (statistical data not shown).
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Discussion |
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The definition of the expression profile of MMPs and TIMPs in the course of lesion formation, and their spatial distribution in brain tissue are prerequisites for the understanding of their role in disease pathogenesis, which may have therapeutic implications. Earlier histological studies (Cuzner et al., 1996
; Anthony et al., 1997; Cossins et al., 1997) demonstrated an upregulation of MMP-2, -3, -7 and -9 expression in multiple sclerosis lesions. However, these results were not quantitative and were restricted mostly to acute lesions, and the involvement of NAWM has not been evaluated. Moreover, the patterns of MMP expression in animal models of multiple sclerosis, as measured by immunohistochemistry and semi-quantitative PCR, were only partly congruent with those in human disease, but revealed the involvement of additional members of the MMP family (Anthony et al., 1998; Kieseier et al., 1998; Pagenstecher et al., 1998). Finally, no data on the expression profile of TIMPs in multiple sclerosis tissue were available.
Here, we show that MMPs are regulated specifically in multiple sclerosis brain tissue: MMP-7 and -9 are strongly induced, while other MMPs showed either minimal induction, restricted to `early' plaques (MMP-2 and -3), or were downregulated (MMP-12) compared with controls. Moreover, the transcriptional overexpression of MMP-7 and -9 is not confined to lesions, but extends into the NAWM. Immunohistochemical studies confirmed that this led to upregulated expression of the corresponding proteins in microglial cells (Cossins et al., 1997) and endothelial cells (present results). Modern MRI techniques have demonstrated diffuse structural changes indicative of myelin damage and neuronal loss in NAWM of multiple sclerosis that do not represent precursor stages of later lesion formation, but occur independently of the latter (Catalaa et al., 2000; Werring et al., 2000). Our present results support the concept of multiple sclerosis as a primarily generalized, instead of a focal, disease process at the molecular level.
TIMPs are believed to regulate the enzymatic activity of MMPs in order to protect them from overactive proteolysis, and hence uncontrolled tissue destruction. It has been hypothesized that MMP-9 upregulation predominates in early lesion development, whereas in later phases, where repair processes take over, MMP-2 and TIMP-2 participate in reparative extracellular matrix remodelling (Bever and Rosenberg, 1999). However, current results do not confirm this scenario, but rather support a sustained overexpression of MMP-7 and -9 and a lack of functional counter-regulation of TIMPs throughout the course of disease. This is different from other CNS inflammatory diseases such as bacterial meningitis, in which upregulation of MMP-9 is closely related to increased TIMP-1 levels in individual patients (Leppert et al., 2000). Earlier studies in CSF and serum of multiple sclerosis patients demonstrated an upregulation of MMP-9 protein expression, whereas levels of TIMP-1 and -2 were not increased (Leppert et al., 1998; Lee et al., 1999). In serum of patients with active multiple sclerosis, an identical pattern was found for the transcriptional regulation of MMP-9 and TIMP-1 (Lichtinghagen et al., 1999). Functionally, the transient increase in the MMP-9/TIMP-1 protein ratio in longitudinal serum measurements was predictive for the occurrence of new gadolinium-enhancing lesions in MRI, defining for the first time a prospective disease marker for the course of multiple sclerosis (Waubant et al., 1999). We propose that dyscoordinate regulation of MMPs and TIMPs is a specific feature in multiple sclerosis that occurs uniformly in the brain, and other tissue compartments.
The present findings allow us only to surmise the cellular source of MMPs in multiple sclerosis brain tissue. The upregulation of MMP-7 and -9 in reactive lesions suggests that resident brain cells are the major source, as blood-derived immune cells are scarce at this stage of lesion formation (Cuzner et al., 1996; Maeda and Sobel, 1996; van der Valk and De Groot, 2000). This concept is supported by the absence of transcripts, and of protein (Leppert et al., 1998) of MMP-7 in CSF of multiple sclerosis, and points to resident cells (e.g. macrophages, microglial cells or astrocytes) as its exclusive source in brain parenchyma (Cossins et al., 1997). Conversely, the increased transcriptional (present study) and protein expression of MMP-9 in CSF and brain tissue of multiple sclerosis (Cossins et al., 1997), and the relatively low expression level in chronic inactive plaques, suggests that leucocytes, besides endothelial cells, are quantitatively the most relevant producers. Low amounts of MMP-8 were detected in the majority of lesions and NAWM, but not in controls. Initially, MMP-8 was believed to originate exclusively from neutrophils and was therefore named `neutrophil collagenase'. Based on this concept, the occurrence of MMP-8 transcripts is difficult to explain, as accumulation of neutrophils in the brain parenchyma is not a typical feature of multiple sclerosis. However, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and macrophages recently have also been demonstrated to produce MMP-8, and may represent sources in multiple sclerosis (Hanemaaijer et al., 1997; Prikk et al., 2001).
The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis is associated with an upregulation of cytokines such as TNF-/ß and IL-2 (Hofman et al., 1989; Selmaj et al., 1991; Wucherpfennig et al., 1992; Cannella and Raine, 1995; Raine et al., 1998). TNF- and TNF receptors have been localized immunohistochemically in acute and chronically active multiple sclerosis lesions, but a moderate elevation of expression was also present in adjacent NAWM (Hofman et al., 1989; Selmaj et al., 1991; Raine et al., 1998; Bitsch et al., 2000). Interestingly, the metalloproteinase TACE (ADAM-17) that transforms cell membrane-bound TNF-, and possibly TNF receptors, into soluble forms was not induced in brain tissue, nor in CSF from multiple sclerosis. As expected, IL-2 transcripts were detected only in acute lesions and adjacent NAWM where parenchymal invasion by T cells is a typical feature, but were absent in controls and other multiple sclerosis tissue. In contrast, transcripts of all three subunits of the IL-2 receptor were constitutively expressed in high amounts in controls and were not significantly different in multiple sclerosis. In agreement with current results, others have found that TNF- and IL-2 did not display a consistent and reproducible pattern of expression when analysed in eight specimens of different multiple sclerosis lesion types (Baranzini et al., 2000). The restricted, or lack of upregulation of cytokines and cytokine receptors contrasts with the sustained induction of MMP-7 and -9 and led us to conclude that other signalling molecules are more relevant regulators of MMP expression in multiple sclerosis.
In summary, the present results add to the concept of a specific role for MMP-7 and -9 in both lesion formation and pre-lesional changes in NAWM of multiple sclerosis. Based on the lack of induction of TIMPs, we hypothesize that the failure to induce compensatory inhibition against excess proteolytic activity is a primary feature of multiple sclerosis pathogenesis. This continuous inflammatory stress could lead to neuronal loss, and may eventually promote clinical secondary chronic progression. However, brain tissue samples from other neurological (inflammatory and non-inflammatory) diseases need to be analysed in order to assess better the specificity of the present findings for multiple sclerosis. From a therapeutic point of view, current findings add to the molecular explanation for the beneficial effect of interferon-ß in multiple sclerosis. Besides suppressing production of MMPs in vitro (Leppert et al., 1996; Stüve et al., 1996) and in serum of multiple sclerosis patients (Trojano et al., 1999; Ozenci et al., 2000), interferon-ß also increases gene transcription of TIMP-1, and may, therefore, attenuate MMP overactivity in multiple sclerosis by a dual approach. Furthermore, the lack of sufficient endogenous inhibitors containing MMP activity broadens the scientific basis for the use of hydroxamic acid-type MMP inhibitors in multiple sclerosis (Yong, 1999). The results of this and prior studies (Leppert et al., 1998; Lee et al., 1999; Waubant et al., 1999) suggest that such a drug would need to inhibit both MMP-7 and -9 and that long-term administration may be desirable. However, the roles of the more recently detected MMPs (MMP-14 to MMP-28) and unknown MMP signalling molecules in multiple sclerosis remain to be determined. Only a comprehensive analysis of gene regulation based on microarray techniques is expected to identify the complete network of multiple sclerosis disease genes.
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Acknowledgements |
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We wish to thank Caroline Grygar for excellent technical assistance, Dr R. Ravid of The Netherlands Brain Bank for supplying the human CNS tissue, and Dr W. Kamphorst for the neuropathological evaluation. This work was supported by grants (4038-52841 and 31.51084.97) from the Swiss National Science Foundation, the Swiss Multiple Sclerosis Society, the Schering Foundation, the Théodore Ott Foundation and Swiss Life Insurance.
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Received January 15, 2001. Revised March 27, 2001. Accepted April 26, 2001.
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