Brain Advance Access published online on February 26, 2008
Brain, doi:10.1093/brain/awn023
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Genetic variation in the interleukin-1β-converting enzyme associates with cognitive function. The PROSPER study
1Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 2Department of Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands, 3Department of Vascular Biochemistry, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, 4Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland, 5Department of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands, 6Robertson Centre for Biostatistics, University of Glasgow, 7Clinical Trials Unit, North Glasgow Division, Greater Glasgow Health Board, 8Division of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, 9Department of Geriatric Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland and 10Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
Correspondence to:
Stella Trompet MSc, Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, C-2-R, Leiden University Medical Center, PO Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands E-mail: s.trompet{at}lumc.nl
 |
Summary |
|---|
 Top Summary IntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Inflammation is thought to play an important role in the development of cognitive decline and dementia in old age. The interleukin-1 signalling pathway may play a prominent role in this process. The gene encoding for interleukin-1β-converting enzyme (ICE) is likely to influence IL-1β levels. Inhibition of ICE decreases the age-related increase in IL-1β levels and may therefore improve memory function. We assessed whether genetic variation in the ICE gene associates with cognitive function in an elderly population. All 5804 participants of the PROspective Study of Pravastatin in the Elderly at Risk (PROSPER) were genotyped for the 10643GC, 9323GA, 8996AG and 5352GA polymorphisms in the ICE gene. Cross-sectional associations between the polymorphisms and cognitive function were assessed with linear regression. Longitudinal associations between polymorphisms, haplotypes and cognitive function were assessed with linear mixed models. All associations were adjusted for sex, age, education, country, treatment with pravastatin and version of test where appropriate. Subjects carrying the variants 10643C and 5352A allele had significantly lower IL-1β production levels (P < 0.01). Furthermore, we demonstrated that homozygous carriers of the 10643C and the 5352A allele performed better on all executive function tests at baseline and during follow-up compared to homozygous carriers of the wild-type allele (all P < 0.02). The haplotype with two variants present (10643C and 5352A) was associated with better executive function (all P < 0.02) compared to the reference haplotype without variants. For memory function the same trend was observed, although not significant. Genetic variation in the ICE gene is associated with better performance on cognitive function and lower IL-1β production levels. This suggests that low levels of IL-1β are protective for memory and learning deficits. Inhibition of ICE may therefore be an important therapeutic target for maintaining cognitive function in old age.
Key Words: interleukin-1beta converting enzyme; cognitive function; elderly; inflammation
Abbreviations: ICE, interleukin-1β-converting enzyme; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; LDT, Letter–Digit Coding Test; PLT, Picture Learning test; LD, linkage disequilibrium
Received May 10, 2007. Revised January 14, 2008. Accepted January 27, 2008.
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopSummaryIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Inflammation plays an important role in the development of cognitive decline and dementia in old age (Wilson et al., 2002
). The interleukin-1 signalling pathway is likely to have a prominent role in this process (Gibertini et al., 1995; Schneider et al., 1998; Thomson and Sutherland, 2005; Solfrizzi et al., 2006). For example, in rodents peripheral administration of interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) induces various cognitive-behavioural effects (Gibertini et al., 1995). Furthermore, expression of IL-1β is increased in patients with Alzheimer's disease (Solfrizzi et al., 2006). One of the possible mechanisms by which IL-1β acts on cognitive function is by binding to IL-1 type-1 receptors which are abundantly expressed in the hippocampus (Schneider et al., 1998), the area of the brain that has a critical role in memory and learning.
IL-1β production capacity is under tight genetic control. An extended twin study found that over 80% of the variance in production capacity of IL-1β is explained by genetic factors (de Craen et al., 2005). The gene encoding for interleukin-1β-converting enzyme (ICE) is likely to be one of the main genes influencing IL-1β. ICE mediates the cleavage of the inactive precursor of IL-1β into the biologically active form (Gemma et al., 2005). Inhibition of ICE decreases the age-related increase in IL-1β levels (Gemma et al., 2005). Genetic variation in the ICE gene is likely to be functional since patients with the 5352AA genotype in the ICE gene have an increased risk of developing restenosis after percutaneous coronary intervention, a process where inflammation also plays a key role (Monraats et al., 2006).
Since genetic variation in the gene coding for ICE influences expression and function of IL-1β, we assessed the association between four polymorphism within the ICE gene and cognitive function in an elderly population.
|
Methods |
|---|
|
TopSummaryIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
All data come from the PROspective Study of Pravastatin in the Elderly at Risk (PROSPER). A detailed description of the study has been published elsewhere (Shepherd et al., 1999
, 2002). A short summary is provided here.
Participants
PROSPER was a prospective multicenter randomized placebo-controlled trial to assess whether treatment with pravastatin diminishes the risk of major vascular events in elderly. Between December 1997 and May 1999, we screened and enrolled subjects in Scotland (Glasgow), Ireland (Cork) and the Netherlands (Leiden). Men and women aged 70–82 years were recruited if they had pre-existing vascular disease or increased risk of such disease because of smoking, hypertension or diabetes. A total number of 5804 subjects were randomly assigned to pravastatin or placebo. A large number of prospective tests were performed including Biobank tests and cognitive function measurements.
Cognitive function
The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) was used to measure global cognitive function. The MMSE scores range from 0 points (very severe cognitive impairment) to 30 points (optimal cognitive function). Participants with poor cognitive function (MMSE <24) were not eligible for inclusion in the PROSPER study. Four neuropsychological performance tests were used to measure various cognitive domains. The Stroop colour-word-test for attention and the Letter–Digit Coding Test (LDT) for processing speed were used to measure executive functioning. The outcome parameter for the Stroop test was the total number of seconds to complete the third Stroop card containing 40 items. The outcome variable for the LDT was the total number of correct entries in 60 s. Memory was assessed with the 15-Picture Learning test (PLT) testing immediate and delayed recall. The main outcome parameters were the accumulated number of recalled pictures over the three learning trials and the number of pictures recalled after 20 min. The six correlation coefficients between the four neuropsychological performance tests varied between 0.29 (P < 0.001) for the Stroop test and the PLT delayed and 0.77 (P < 0.001) for the PLT immediate and delayed. Reliability and sensitivity of these tests in an elderly population have been published elsewhere (Houx et al., 2002).
Cognitive function was tested at six different time-points during the study, before randomization, at baseline, after 9, 18 and 30 months, and at the end of the study. The time point of this last measurement was different for the participants (at 36–48 months), therefore we performed the analyses with their individually varying time-point but report the results for the mean of these time-points (at 42 months). The pre-randomized measurement was discarded in the analysis to preclude possible learning effects. Since the MMSE is not suitable for longitudinal research because of learning and ceiling effects, MMSE scores are not reported here.
Compound cognitive test scores were constructed by transforming individual test scores into standardized Z-scores (Z-score = (individual score – mean population score)/standard deviation of the population score) for global cognitive function, executive function and memory function. Global cognitive function was calculated by averaging the Z-scores of the Stroop colour-word-test, the LDT and the 15-PLT immediate and delayed recall. Executive function included the Z-scores of the Stroop colour-word-test and the LDT. Memory function included the Z-scores of the 15-PLT immediate and delayed recall.
Genotyping
We selected four single nucleotide polymorphisms in the ICE gene, 10643GC (rs554344), 9323GA (rs488992), 8996AG (rs1977989) and 5352GA (rs580253) based on its minor allele frequency (>5%) and to cover the genomic region of the ICE gene for haplotype analyses. Using the HapMap database (www.hapmap.org) we identified these SNPs as tagSNPs for the existing haplotypes within the gene. All SNPs were genotyped by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS), using the Sequenom MassARRAYtm methodology (Sequenom Inc., San Diego, CA, USA). Amplification reactions and parameters were based on the manufacturer's instructions.
IL-1β production levels
Cytokine production levels were measured in a randomly chosen subgroup of 411 participants at baseline. Whole blood samples were stimulated with 10 ng/ml of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to assess the innate IL-1β production capacity. Unstimulated baseline samples were obtained to serve as a control for contamination.
Statistical analysis
The program Haploview (Barrett et al., 2005) was used to estimate the allele frequencies, test the consistency of the genotype frequencies at each SNP locus with Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, and estimate and plot pairwise linkage disequilibrium (LD) between the SNPs examined. Haplotypes and haplotype frequencies were calculated using SNPHAP software (http//www-gene.cimr.cam.ac.uk/clayton/software 2006). We used multiple imputation analysis to deal with incomplete data and to account for many haplotype probabilities per subject. This method has been described elsewhere in more detail (Harel and Zhou, 2007). Haplotypes with a frequency of < 5% were combined and included in all analyses, without reporting the results. The haplotype analysis approach used in this study assumes an additive effect of the haplotypes, and details of this approach have been described elsewhere (Wallenstein et al., 1998).
Cross-sectional associations between the four ICE polymorphisms and cognitive function were assessed with linear regression, adjusted for sex, age, education, country and version of test where appropriate. The associations between the four genotypes and the ICE haplotypes with cognitive function during follow-up were assessed with linear mixed models for repeated measurements. All mixed models included time and genotype and were adjusted for as the cross-sectional analyses with an additional adjustment for use of pravastatin. The models did not include any interaction terms. The coefficient for time represents the mean cognitive decline per year. The coefficient for genotype represents the mean difference over time between the genotypes. In the model subjects were defined as the random factor, all other variables were defined as fixed factors. The SPSS software (version 12.0.1, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) was used for all statistical analyses. P-values <0.05 were considered statistically significant.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopSummaryIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Table 1 shows the baseline characteristics of the 5804 participants divided over the three countries. The mean age of all subjects at study entry was 75.3 years and about 50% of the participants were female. There were significant differences in minor allele frequencies between the countries (P-value Chi-square <0.01, data not shown). The variants 10643C and 5352A were more common in the Dutch subjects compared with the subjects from Scotland and Ireland. Therefore, all analyses were adjusted for country. Mean follow-up of study subjects was 42 months (range 36–48 months).
|
Genotyping of the four ICE polymorphisms was complete for at least 5403 subjects. The results of the remaining subjects were missing because of insufficient DNA or incomplete genotyping. All four SNPs were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (all P > 0.3). The four SNPs were in strong LD and occurred together in one haploblock (Fig. 1A). Four haplotypes were found in our study population (Fig. 1B). All haplotypes with a frequency above 5% were included in analyses. We used H1111, with no variants present, as reference haplotype. H1121 carried the 9323G variant, H2212 carried three variant alleles, 10643C, 8996A and 5352A, and H2112 carried two variants, 10643C and 5352A.
|
To determine the functionality of the four polymorphisms in our study sample, we assessed the difference in IL-1β production capacity over the three genotypes. Subjects carrying the variant 10643C and 5352A allele had significantly lower IL-1β production levels compared to carriers of the wild-type allele (P < 0.01) (Table 2). We found no significant result for the 8996AG polymorphism, although a trend was seen that the variant allele had a higher IL-1β production capacity compared to the wild-type allele.
|
The results of the cross-sectional association between the ICE polymorphisms and cognitive function at baseline are presented in Table 3. Significant associations were found between the 10643C variant and all cognitive function tests (all P < 0.05), the same results were found for the association between the 5352A variant and cognitive function (all P < 0.05). For the 9323A allele comparable results were found, although the effects with memory function were not so strong. Subjects with these variant alleles had a better cognitive performance at baseline compared to the wild-type allele. Carriers of the 8996G variant performed worse on the Stroop colour-word test for attention (P = 0.004). Excluding subjects with a history of stroke did not materially change our results.
|
Table 4 shows the results of the longitudinal association between the ICE polymorphisms and cognitive function. Follow-up was complete for 4283 subjects, loss to follow-up was for most of the subjects due to mortality. The term for time was significant for all domains of cognitive function, indicating that all domains declined over time. The estimates represent the mean difference over time between the genotypes. Carriers of the 10643C and 5352A alleles significantly performed better on the global and executive function tests (all P < 0.01). For memory function the same trend was seen but not statistically significant. The 9323GA was positively associated with attention and executive function (P = 0.03) but with the other cognitive performance test no association was found. Carriers of the 8996G variant performed worse over time on the test for attention (P = 0.023).
|
Results remained similar when the analyses were done without adjusting for education (data not shown).
To assess whether the association between genotypes and cognition was dependent on development of stroke, we investigated the occurrence of clinical strokes during follow-up. There was an equal division of the occurrence of clinical stroke between the genotypes (all P > 0.5). The results of the longitudinal association between ICE polymorphisms and cognitive function did not materially change after excluding all subjects with stroke or TIA in their history or during follow-up (data not shown).
The results of the longitudinal analysis between the ICE polymorphisms and executive function are graphically displayed in Fig. 2. A dose-dependent association was present for the 10643GC, 9323GA and the 5352GA polymorphisms with executive function (all P < 0.03). With the 8996AG polymorphism no dose-dependent association was found (P = 0.194).
|
In Table 5 the results of the association between ICE haplotypes and cognitive function during follow-up are shown. H1111 was used as reference. As in the SNP analysis, the term for time was significant for all domains of cognitive function, indicating that all domains declined over time. H2112 with the variant alleles of 10643C and 5352A was associated with better cognitive performance on global cognitive function and executive function compared to the reference haplotype (all P < 0.02). With memory function no associations were found. There also was a significant association between H2212 and attention (P = 0.045) and executive function (P = 0.028). A comparable trend was also seen for the other cognitive domains, but did not reach statistical significance. There was no association with H1121 and cognition. Excluding subjects with a history of stroke and those who suffered a stroke during follow-up did not materially change our results. Again, the results remained similar when the analyses were done without adjusting for education.
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopSummaryIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
In this study we investigated the association between genetic variation in the ICE gene and cognitive function. We found that subjects carrying the variants 10643C and 5352A had significantly lower IL-1β production levels. Furthermore, we demonstrated that carriers of the 10643C and the 5352A allele performed better on all executive function tests at baseline and during follow-up compared to carriers of the wild-type allele (all P < 0.02). The haplotype with these two variants present (10643C and 5352A) was also associated with better executive function (all P < 0.02) compared to the reference haplotype without variant alleles. For memory function the same trend was observed, although not significant.
A previous study by Gemma et al. demonstrated that inhibition of ICE in rats is associated with improved memory (Gemma et al., 2005). They showed that the inhibition of ICE and improved memory coincides with a decrease in hippocampal IL-1β levels. In our study we showed that carriers of the 10643C and 5352A alleles in the ICE gene have lower IL-1β levels compared to carriers of the wild-type allele. This suggests that low levels of IL-1β might be protective for memory and learning deficits.
IL-1β is a pro-inflammatory cytokine which has a key position in the innate immune and inflammatory response by inducing a pro-inflammatory response (Dinarello and Savage, 1989). Binding to the IL-1 receptor evokes cytokines release of pro-inflammatory cytokines like Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-
), Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and Interferon gamma (IFN-
) (Fig. 3). It was originally described as a mediator in the periphery, however, IL-1β has also been reported to be synthesized in the brain (Dinarello and Savage, 1989). In addition, IL-1 receptors have been detected in different regions of the central nervous system with the highest density in the hippocampus (Rothwell and Hopkins, 1995).
|
The hypothesis that IL-1β associates with cognitive function was first proposed by Lynch in 1998 (Lynch, 1998
). She suggested that hippocampal concentration of IL-1β increases with age, while the cause of this increase remained unclear. In vitro studies have shown that increase in IL-1β in hippocampal tissue would increase lipid-peroxidation possibly by stimulating production of reactive oxygen species (Murray et al., 1999). IL-1β is thought to damage the neuronal membrane by lipid-peroxidation and is thereby accompanied by impairment in expression of long-term potentiation (Griffin et al., 1989; Rothwell and Hopkins, 1995), an electrophysiological index of synaptic plasticity linked to memory and learning.
Peripheral administration of IL-1β induces diverse cognitive-behavioural effects. Gibertini et al. demonstrated that IL-1β injections prior to training on the Morris water maze affects the learning ability of mice (Gibertini et al., 1995). Furthermore, when injecting the same mice afterwards with an anti-IL-1β antibody, the learning on the water maze was normalized. Subsequently, several other studies have reported that IL-1β administration induces cognitive defects like decreased exploratory behaviour and decreased spatial learning (Spadaro and Dunn, 1990; Oitzl et al., 1993). Moreover, increased expression of IL-1β is associated with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia (Solfrizzi et al., 2006).
At baseline there were more subjects with a history of stroke within the group of homozygous carriers of the variant 10643C and 5352A allele compared to the carriers of the wild-type allele (data not shown). During follow-up the carriers of the variant 10643C and 5352A alleles did not develop more clinical strokes compared to wild-type carriers. This suggests that the unequal division of history of stroke at baseline is due to chance. To exclude the possibility that the better cognitive performance of subjects with the variants 10643C and 5352A was caused by a difference in prevalence and incidence of stroke, we repeated all analyses excluding subjects with a history of stroke or an incidence of stroke or TIA in follow-up. When we excluded subjects with clinical stroke in the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations, we still found that subjects carrying the 10643C and 5352A variant alleles had a better cognitive function compared to wild-type carriers. Therefore we think that the better cognitive function in subjects with these two variants is not caused by clinical strokes. This supports the hypothesis of Lynch (1998) that IL-1β induces cognitive deficits by inflammation and hippocampal damage in stead of atherosclerosis.
By using TagSNPs in this study we can form the four main haplotypes within the ICE gene, and because of the strong LD we know which SNPs are on which haplotype. H2112 with the two variants 10643C and 5352A has been found to have a beneficial effect on cognitive function, but both variants may not be functional by themselves. The ICE 5352GA polymorphism we investigated is located in exon 5 but does not have an amino acid change as a result and the ICE 10643GC polymorphism is located in the intronic area of the gene. These variants might be in linkage disequilibrium with other polymorphisms in the gene at this haplotype (Blankenberg et al., 2006). Although the functionality of the ICE polymorphisms is not well-known, we here demonstrated that carriers of the 10643C and 5352A variant alleles have a significantly lower IL-1β production capacity. Together with our finding that carriers of the 10643C and 5352A variants have better cognitive function, it is highly suggestive that low IL-1β levels might causally be related to a better cognitive function in old age.
We decided to adjust all analyses for education because education might affect the level of cognitive function. It might be argued that this is an overadjustment because prior cognitive ability might lead to more education. This might be the reason why education is related to later cognitive ability. However, we assessed our analyses also without adjustment for education and the results did not materially change.
One of the strengths of our study is our population size. We have prospective data of over 5000 subjects on cognitive function. Also the fact that we have a follow-up of 42 months with little lost to follow-up is a strong element of our study. We used the linear mixed models for our statistical analyses because this method can handle repeated measurement accurately. Furthermore, our population is appropriate to measure cognitive function because only subjects with an MMSE above 24 points could participate, which makes it a homogenous study group suitable for investigating cognitive function. We did not analyse the cognitive decline over time over the genotype groups because we did not expect that carriers will have an additional change per year. We expected that they have a difference in cognition developed earlier in life and that in this elderly population we could not find an additional decline.
Another strength of our study is that all subjects were recruited if they had pre-existing vascular disease or increased risk of such disease because of smoking, hypertension or diabetes. Despite these inclusion criteria as well as the selection for subjects with MMSE scores above 24 we do not have an enrichment of the variant 10643C and 5352A alleles within our study population compared to the general population. Because the recruitment of subjects with pre-existing vascular disease, we could exclude subjects with a stroke in history and follow-up to exclude the possibility that the effects are attributable to clinical stroke.
In conclusion, we found an association between the ICE polymorphisms and cognitive function. Carriers of the variant 10643C and 5352A alleles performed better on all cognitive function tests compared to carriers of the wild-type allele, which was independent of clinical strokes. We also found that carriers of the variant alleles had significant lower IL-1β levels than homozygous wild-type carriers. This suggests that low levels of IL-1β are protective for memory and learning deficits. Inhibition of ICE will lower IL-1β levels and might thereby improve cognitive function. ICE inhibitors might therefore become an important therapeutic tool for subjects with cognitive decline.
|
Acknowledgements |
|---|
This work was performed as part of an ongoing collaboration of the PROSPER study group in the universities of Leiden, Glasgow and Cork. This work was partly supported by an investigator initiated grant from Bristol–Myers Squibb, USA. We like to thank the Centre for Medical Systems Biology, Leiden, The Netherlands, for their contribution to our study and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research NWO for financial support. Prof. Dr J.W. Jukema is an established clinical investigator of the Netherlands Heart Foundation (2001 D 032).
|
References |
|---|
|
TopSummaryIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Barrett JC, Fry B, Maller J, Daly MJ. Haploview: analysis and visualization of LD and haplotype maps. Bioinformatics (2005) 21:263–5.
Blankenberg S, Godefroy T, Poirier O, Rupprecht HJ, Barbaux S, Bickel C, et al. Haplotypes of the caspase-1 gene, plasma caspase-1 levels, and cardiovascular risk. Circ Res (2006) 99:102–8.
de Craen AJ, Posthuma D, Remarque EJ, van den Biggelaar AH, Westendorp RG, Boomsma DI. Heritability estimates of innate immunity: an extended twin study. Genes Immun (2005) 6:167–70.[CrossRef][Medline]
Dinarello CA, Savage N. Interleukin-1 and its receptor. Crit Rev Immunol (1989) 9:1–20.[Web of Science][Medline]
Gemma C, Fister M, Hudson C, Bickford PC. Improvement of memory for context by inhibition of caspase-1 in aged rats. Eur J Neurosci (2005) 22:1751–6.[CrossRef][Medline]
Gibertini M, Newton C, Friedman H, Klein TW. Spatial learning impairment in mice infected with Legionella pneumophila or administered exogenous interleukin-1-beta. Brain Behav Immun (1995) 9:113–28.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Griffin WS, Stanley LC, Ling C, White L, MacLeod V, Perrot LJ, et al. Brain interleukin 1 and S-100 immunoreactivity are elevated in Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA (1989) 86:7611–5.
Harel O, Zhou XH. Multiple imputation: review of theory, implementation and software. Stat Med (2007) 26:3057–77.[CrossRef][Medline]
Houx PJ, Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, Ford I, Bollen EL, et al. Testing cognitive function in elderly populations: the PROSPER study. PROspective study of Pravastatin in the Elderly at Risk. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (2002) 73:385–9.
Assessed at 01-11-2007. http://www-gene.cimr.cam.ac.uk/clayton/software.
Lynch MA. Age-related impairment in long-term potentiation in hippocampus: a role for the cytokine, interleukin-1 beta? Prog Neurobiol (1998) 56:571–89.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Monraats PS, de Vries F, de Jong LW, Pons D, Sewgobind VD, Zwinderman AH, et al. Inflammation and apoptosis genes and the risk of restenosis after percutaneous coronary intervention. Pharmacogenet Genomics (2006) 16:747–54.[Medline]
Murray CA, Clements MP, Lynch MA. Interleukin-1 induces lipid peroxidation and membrane changes in rat hippocampus: an age-related study. Gerontology (1999) 45:136–42.[CrossRef][Medline]
Oitzl MS, van Oers H, Schobitz B, de Kloet ER. Interleukin-1 beta, but not interleukin-6, impairs spatial navigation learning. Brain Res (1993) 613:160–3.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Rothwell NJ, Hopkins SJ. Cytokines and the nervous system II: actions and mechanisms of action. Trends Neurosci (1995) 18:130–6.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Schneider H, Pitossi F, Balschun D, Wagner A, del Rey A, Besedovsky HO. A neuromodulatory role of interleukin-1beta in the hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA (1998) 95:7778–83.
Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, Bollen EL, Buckley BM, Cobbe SM, et al. Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet (2002) 360:1623–30.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, Cobbe SM, Bollen EL, Buckley BM, et al. The design of a prospective study of Pravastatin in the Elderly at Risk (PROSPER). PROSPER Study Group. PROspective Study of Pravastatin in the Elderly at Risk. Am J Cardiol (1999) 84:1192–7.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Solfrizzi V, D’Introno A, Colacicco AM, Capurso C, Todarello O, Pellicani V, et al. Circulating biomarkers of cognitive decline and dementia. Clin Chim Acta (2006) 364:91–112.[CrossRef][Medline]
Spadaro F, Dunn AJ. Intracerebroventricular administration of interleukin-1 to mice alters investigation of stimuli in a novel environment. Brain Behav Immun (1990) 4:308–22.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Thomson LM, Sutherland RJ. Systemic administration of lipopolysaccharide and interleukin-1beta have different effects on memory consolidation. Brain Res Bull (2005) 67:24–9.[CrossRef][Medline]
Wallenstein S, Hodge SE, Weston A. Logistic regression model for analyzing extended haplotype data. Genet Epidemiol (1998) 15:173–81.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Wilson CJ, Finch CE, Cohen HJ. Cytokines and cognition–the case for a head-to-toe inflammatory paradigm. J Am Geriatr Soc (2002) 50:2041–56.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
CiteULike 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us What's this?
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  M. W. J. Strachan, R. M. Reynolds, B. M. Frier, R. J. Mitchell, and J. F. Price The relationship between type 2 diabetes and dementia Br. Med. Bull., December 1, 2008; 88(1): 131 - 146. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||